Fiction coursework final draft Mollie Coucill

The moon shone hauntingly over the harsh pine trees protruding from the stiff ground like a stake from the heart of a vampire. New layers of snow fell on the cold, hard ground of the forest, covering prints that had been created there earlier that day. In the centre of Newgrove Forest a river ran fiercely and deeply, splitting the fearsome forest in half. Beyond the eastern section of the river stood a great manor-house, some what out of place in the eighteenth century Albanian woodland surrounding it. The house was humongous and daunting, a charcoal-burned monstrosity towering over its extensive graveyard, with hundreds of memorials and tombstones protruding from the ground at various angles. Of all the various windows lining the stone walls of the house, only one was lit; and through it was a collection of the most curious and fearsome creatures that human eyes had ever witnessed. There were twelve gathered in that room – eleven of them daemons clothed in nothing but their thick skin and lusting for flesh. Every one of the monstrous beasts was different from the next, with various differing characteristics; some bore horns and piercing crimson skin, others with a mucus colouring, and several limbs more than was normal. These eleven were gathered around a twelfth, who was clothed in hooded grey robes. Seemingly human, the twelfth member of this estranged committee appeared to be preaching to the impatient creatures around him. â€Å"Daemons of the vortex, too long have you been imprisoned within these walls! Too long have you been prevented from wreaking havoc in this world of man! And too long you have had to wait in dear anticipation for your next kill.† The man spoke in a harsh rasping voice that echoed throughout the room. â€Å"There is one who can help you; one whose death would bring forth the dawn of the new age- the age of the daemon.† The surrounding daemons began to holler and scream in excitement: they knew that this man was talking of freeing them from the house forever. â€Å"Who is this man?† asked a repulsive purple daemon, who seemed to be the leader of the daemons present. â€Å"Why, the only offspring of the long-dead monarchy of Albania,† commented the hooded figure, smugly. â€Å"Impossible!† muttered the head-daemon. â€Å"We wiped out those scum long before we were imprisoned here! You had better not lie to me, Broc!† â€Å"Well you missed one – didn't you?† replied the man called Broc, now starting to become impatient. â€Å"All I know is that there is a boy, close to seventeen years of age, who has been branded. I saw him with my very eyes.† â€Å"Why haven't I been informed of this?† screamed the head-daemon. â€Å"The Remok- they tracked down my enemies sixteen years ago! How could they have missed a child? I will see the end of this. Bring them forth! They will bring the boy.† â€Å"No! I mean†¦ I will see to it that the boy is brought here as soon as possible.† Broc, for the first time, showed a hint of fear; the Remok were not to be messed with. â€Å"Very well – I expect him by full moon. Three days Broc.† Replied the daemon. This marked the end of the conference, and he and his minions left, allowing Broc to show himself out. Meanwhile, beyond the western side of the river, perhaps twenty miles away from the water lay a small village within a clearing, consisting of twenty sawdust huts, held together with mud. In a hut much like any other slept a teenage boy on a mattress made of straw. Visible on the boy's left wrist was a black tattoo- resembling an eye, impaled upon a spear. The detailing of the tattoo showed that the artist must have been of a superb standard. For now, the boy slept on. Later, when the sun was at its prime, the boy's eyes shot open. The light was slicing through holes in the thick fibres of the wall. He screwed up his eyes, stood from his bed, and stepped from the hut. Today marked an important occasion for the boy, as it was his seventeenth birthday. He was now permitted to leave the village to search for a livelihood for himself. However, the boy had already vowed that he would leave- not to find a job- but to find his family. When he was a month or so old, the boy had been found outside the hut of the local healer, Theo, who raised the boy and called him Yan. For the next seventeen years Theo brought up Yan as his own son. He was honest with the boy; letting him know of his mysterious heritage, but Yan had always been curious, and there was no stopping him leaving the village. Now that day had arrived, Yan could not leave soon enough. When Yan had collected his belongings and retrieved his mule from the village stables, he set off on his journey, which would take him through the woods, and ultimately to the river-city of Hoelra – the city of the water. Yan travelled for three solid hours through the dense cluster of trees that had formed between his village and the river before reaching the town of Glaera, where he would stop for the night. Yan wandered through the town increasingly warily- there were dead and dying people cluttering the streets of the town, many of the dead had weeping relatives draped over their lifeless corpses. Something had happened there the previous night. Yan lowered himself from his mule as a woman collapsed at his feet, howling with pain and despair. Yan put a hand forward to lift her face and quickly recoiled. Where the left side of her face would have been, was a great bloody hole, with various brains dripping from it

Administer Medication to Individuals and Monitor the Effects Essay

1 Understand legislation, policy and procedures relevant to administration of medication 1.1Identify current legislation, guidelines policies and protocols relevant to the administration of medication see more:identify who is responsible for medication in a social care setting The current legislation that is relevant to administration of medication in social care is: †¢Care standards act 2000 †¢Mental capacity act 2005 †¢Mental capacity act 2000 The legal management of medication are covered by The medicines act 1988 and various amendments such as: †¢The medicines act 1968 †¢The misuse of drugs act 1971 †¢The data protection act 1998 †¢The health and social care act 2001 †¢The children act 1989 Some have a direct impact on the handling of medication in social care settings. These are: †¢The heath act 2000 †¢Health and safety work act 1974 †¢The control of substances hazardous to health regulation 1999 †¢The access to health records act 1990 †¢Mental capacity act 2005 The recording, receipt, storage, administration and disposal of medications must be adhered by employers and employees in accordance with current policies and procedures. Policies are in place to protect everyone. Training should be undertaken or up to date before a support worker can administrate medication. 2Know about common types of medication and their use 2.1Describe common types of medication including their effects and potential side effects Common types of medication are: †¢Antibiotics – these treat infection – side effects are diarrhoea, bloating, sickness, indigestion and abdominal pain. †¢Antidepressants – treats depression or other mental health problems – side effects are blurred vision, diarrhoea, dizziness, loss of appetite, sweating sickness and feeling agitated †¢Analegsics – used to relive pain – side effects are sickness, nausea, dry mouth and drowsiness 2.2Identify medication which demands the measurement of specific physiological measurements

Markting Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Markting - Term Paper Example ces to be offered in the sleep boxes to the customers include pull-down seats where customers can relax for study, sleeping shades that block out light, air conditioners, alarm clocks, and water dispensers. The company will also provide free Wi-Fi internet access, luggage storage area, and electrical sockets for phone or laptop charging. The main competitive edge of our company is the strategic location next to airport. Some travelers may be unfamiliar with the city, the sleep boxes will provide them the opportunity to relax and rest. Our company has a competitive edge since many visitors will avoid the hassle of looking for a hotel or moving around with their baggage. The location of our company has ensured customer convenience and reduced the costs of delivering the services to our target customers. The company is located in rented airport facilities that are secure and friendly thus enabling the customers to attain unique relaxation experience. Our company has positioned itself as the low cost provider of per pay hour sleeping services provider in major airports. The aggressive pricing strategy will involve billing the customer per the number of hours they wish to use the sleep box. The hourly rates will be twice cheaper than the rates charged by hostels and hotels in the adjacent cities. Our company will promote its services through bill boards at the airport entrance and exit points. The company will also utilize the word of mouth to expand its market share and gain brand recognition. There are few companies offering such sleep boxes services thus the company will increase its target market share without any stiff competition in the industry. Our company will streamline the service delivery process by ensuring customer convenience and fostering customer loyalty. All the required services will be delivered promptly and bed sheets will be changed immediately. Our company will be able to provide the physical evidence to the customers. Our company will also

Main Material Input and Output Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Main Material Input and Output - Essay Example As well, this paper names and discusses three potential P2 opportunities for the industry. In the metallurgical industry particles are emitted in production that â€Å"†¦may contain lead, mercury, and other heavy metals† (Cheremisinoff, 2001, 33). For example, coke production involves volatile components. In the US, in the iron and steel industry, coke is used in what is termed the byproduct coke process, that is, byproduct coke ovens are used and the high heat releases comppounds such as benzene, butane, hydrogen cyanide, and propane. The P2 opportunity that this presents is by use of the Maximum Achievable Control Technology (MACT) Standard will help in the reduction of charging and leaking emissions by some two-thirds and bypass/bleeder stacks by ninty-eight percent (Marsosudiro, 2014, 2-3). Another potential P2 opportunity is also in the use of ironmaking technology, that is, direct reduction ironmaking (DRI) as well as pulverized coal injection (PCI). These two proce sses can reduce the use of coal in ironmaking (Marsosudiro, 2014, 5). Other processes that can assist in pollution prevention are natural gas injection, which can replace up to 25% of coal use, as well as oil injection (Marsosudiro, 2014, 6). Marsosudiro, P. (2014). Pollution Prevention in the Integrated Iron and Steel Industry and its Potential Role in MACT Standards Development . Retrieved from P2 Infohouse: A Comprehensive Pollution Prevention Reference Collection:

Institution of affiliation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Institution of affiliation - Essay Example This statement is open to criticism and can be easily misinterpreted (Marr, 2012). Marr argues that genetic material can be traced back in time, but is arguable that, it reaches certain limit. In essence, it is disputable to imagine that all humanity is in a lineal civilized from the remainder of the world. Another instance, were I find a claim not substantial at all, is the assertion that, the Hom sap wiped out the Neanderthals. The primary cause was mass murder and this attributes to the argument that humans are naturally violent and clannish. I do not subscribe to this assertion, because if that is the case, why then cohesive state control is not regarded as an eternal necessity. In the last three episodes, Marr explains his understanding on revolution, industry and extremes. It is evident that, watching this series a clear mind of Marr is visible. Marr wanted to take the present generation through the evolution process of humanity, then revolution, industrial aggressiveness and f ar reached extremes. Marr expresses the path of revolution as being similar in all the revolutions that have occurred across the globe. For instance, he mentions of idealism, and then follows extremism and ultimately collapse of power into the hands of strong military man (Marr, 2012). However, commentators have repeatedly rehashed the idea that revolution leads to autocracy and attribute the evils of the 20th century to the French revolution. It is evident that Marr’s objective is to malign the inspiration of revolution by refuting that revolutions are not driven by ideas and at the same time asserting that such revolutions keep on rolling because of ideals. I find Marr’s arguments conflicting. They do not add up to indicate his beliefs on then real causes of revolutions. However, my reflection on the overall aspect of revolution is inclined is to the fact that, the initial civilizations were because of being driven to extremes and the response to survive gave rise to revolutions (Marr, 2012). This opinion is subject to criticism. On the same note, Marr fails to give correct account of the Russian revolution. Instead, he delivers piece-wise information, and at the end, the whole scenario result to portraying the Russian revolution as a derivative of the machinations of German imperialism in a bid to conceal the responsibility of the Russian population and Bolsheviks as the real forces that drove the revolution. The question arising is, does Marr imply what he believes in or simply his insinuations are meant to cow people to his selective study? I believe the Russian revol

Armed Robbery Sentence Proposal Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Armed Robbery Sentence Proposal - Essay Example As with the case of Timothy Stuart Ring and his accomplices, John Magoch and James Greenham in 2004, when they committed a planned armor car robbery, killing Wells Fargo, the armored car driver in the process.   The case was presided by the Honorable Gregory H. Martin, Judge of Arizona Supreme Court.   It was stated in the court’s decision that the defendants â€Å"are entitled to a jury determination of any fact on which the legislature conditions an increase in their maximum punishments. (Arizona Supreme Court Decision, 2002)†Ã‚   This means that since all court litigation, the maximum sentence, or the degree of punishment is based on how the jury would find the defendants.   In Ring’s case, the crime was cruel and horrendously committed even if Ring only has a minimal criminal record.  In the year 2004, with a population of 21, 593, Nogales Police Department of Arizona’s Crime Index shows a total of 1,310.60 per 100,000 total violent crimes whic h includes Robbery with gun, Robbery with knife, Robbery with other weapon, and Strong Arm Robbery.   The overall total crime index of the state of Arizona for the year 2004 and 2005, armed robbery crimes totaled 7,721 and 8,579 respectively and the record has shown to have increase in 2006 with a total number of armed robbery 9,226 in the state of Arizona alone.   Instead of showing a decrease in crime rates, it seems as if that â€Å"bad people† have more courage to commit armed robbery even with the death sentence and life sentence given to those who committed such crime.  ... Some can even get away of such heinous crimes due to the fact that people today become more ingenious. Let us not only look at the horrifying crime scenes that happened during the committal of the crime. Let us also look at the reason as to why and what these people are experiencing that pushed them to commit armed robbery even murder. Some would say that they rob because they need money to buy food for their family, poverty and being out of a job are some causes that would push these people to rob. While some are only due to an influence of alcohol and even prohibited drugs. Most often that than not, plans started out to be simple without any intention of bloodshed, however when things get out of hand, it starts to get messy and the criminals are forced to get their hands dirty. As far as the state of Arizona is concerned, and basing on the statistics of the Arizona Law Enforcement Agency Uniform Crime Report, the increase of armed robbery for three consecutive years since 2004 until 2006 is already alarming and something should already be done about it. Remember, it is not only that armed robbery that cause so much concern for the people of Arizona, there is, murder, rape, assault, burglary, larceny and many others that keeps our people from living in peace and enjoying life. Therefore, to foster peace and progress, the people of Arizona should be protected from armed robbery, and in so doing, it is proposed that whatever is the degree of the crime, still with the help of the jury, Life Sentence should always be the verdict whether the accused is a celebrity or an ordinary citizen. Rationale The rationale behind this verdict is simple.

Assessment Based Learning Goals Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Assessment Based Learning Goals - Essay Example teacher and the student and the teacher is in a better position to design the lesson in such a way that it is easily understood by the targeted audiences. The main advantage of conducting classroom based assessment is that it helps the teacher to gain first hand information about the measures that can be taken to improve the teaching and learning English Language Learners. Three goals for student learning based on classroom assessment are discussed below. The first goal is to check for language proficiency in terms of reading and pronouncing different words. The students are asked to read different words and they are also asked if they can remember the concepts discussed during the lesson in class. As a recap, the teacher will ask the student to mention the things he or she still remembers from the lesson that has been conducted on that particular day. Language proficiency is developed through constant practice and this helps the English Learners to grasp basic concepts and words as well as to develop their speech. The other goal is to ensure that student teacher interaction is conducted in English no matter how bad it may be. This helps the students especially from lower backgrounds to master some English terms as well as to create confidence among them so that they can quickly learn this language. However, the teacher needs to permit the use of the student’s first language in a situation where they would be explaining certain concepts that appear to be difficult. The last goal is to check if the student is capable of trying to work out the meaning of certain terms and statements on his or her own without consulting the teacher or other students. Working on the meaning of certain terms on their own is a very effective strategy that can help the students to quickly understand English as a second language. The teacher should try to break certain words and explain the meanings of different components such as their roots, prefixes or suffixes. This helps the

Case Application Volunteers Work and Employee First Study

Application Volunteers Work and Employee First - Case Study Example It is also beneficial for employers in a way of reduced burden on wages. It also shows volunteers determination for work that he/she is not working merely for money but for enjoyment and developing skills. Volunteering can be used as a stepping stone in getting a really good job, for it enables one to gain experience, develop skills and gives employers a chance in seeing your work. The part time nature of volunteering work makes it flexible and more attractive to students who can use their leisure time in developing unique skills. If I were at his position I would be more concerned with creating a learning positive environment, so as to attract the best work force. In order to motivate them I would be thinking about giving them rewards and recognition for volunteers efforts and making them learn skills which otherwise they cannot. I think this approach can work in service oriented companies like Apple, Google, Facebook, Twitter and Yahoo because all these companies have a really productive and learning environment and people actually die for working in these big companies. Similarly, tech savvy people would be attracted to them to earn a name and respect amongst the leaders. HCL technologies is trying a radical experiment in work place. Vineet Nayaar (CEO) believes in creating an atmosphere where the job of company’s leaders should be to take out the potential out of their employees and using it where it is best needed and for that Nayar has introduced the employee first culture. This type of culture was originally introduced in HCL. My impression of employee first culture is to create trust grow through transparency, to make managers as accountable to employees as employees are to their bosses, to transfer the responsibility for change and value creation to front-line employees working in the value zone. It can work in other organizations but this is not for every organization. As it bears certain costs and those are: A company

Qualities I Lacked to Work Effectively in a Group Personal Statement

Qualities I Lacked to Work Effectively in a Group - Personal Statement Example Being an egocentric person, the situation was too difficult for me to survive. Being a person who always liked to outperform others and too intolerant in failures, I found the situation humiliating far beyond my expectations. Along with these, the hard reality hit my mind that my abilities were not as good as I expected and I had a long way to go to prove my mettle. It became a nightmare for me to work in a group in the field. Many a time, I found my seniors engaging other members in the team with works that I could do better and adding to my woes, I always erred or had insufficient knowledge in the ones I was handed. I was getting criticized but had no way to react as I found myself in a world where no one seemed interested in recognizing the talent of another one; instead, everyone was looking for ways to undermine others. It was a picture that I never dreamt of. There were two things that I lacked; lack of knowledge in certain specific areas and lack of experience. It was too conf using for me to take a decision; on one hand, I wanted to quit the profession forever and on the other, I wanted to prove my abilities after getting the required qualifications. Finally, I decided to put off my ego and asked my tutor about the future course I had to adopt. She was more than ready to provide advice and on her advice and support, I decided to join this course so that I can improve my knowledge and have a new beginning with sufficient knowledge. In addition, I wrote to MSF after joining my course and I am advised to complete my studies to apply for even better positions in MSF. Now, I am happy that I did not lose heart and give up the idea. Feelings – looking in The incident made me look deep into the wide variety of emotions that ruled my mind at that time. As I already mentioned I had an egalitarian nature and I had a problem accepting suggestions and advice and I always nurtured the feeling that I am better than others and it was so in my academic pursuit. Ho wever, out in the field, I found it hard to digest that what I do just goes wrong or the workplace requires more ability than I possessed. It was totally indigestible and unbelievable in the beginning as my ego did not accept it that easily. Still, I knew very well that I could do much better than what many others did but had no opportunity. I found it humiliating as I was very often criticized for the lack of knowledge. Now I have to accept the fact that the reason behind my misery at work was mostly because of my ego and lack of knowledge compounded with my dislike to seek help from others. However, the feeling of utter disappointment made me seek help, though reluctantly, and when I sought advice and became ready to accept, the solution was immediate.  

Advantages and disadvantages of Home-working Essay Example for Free

Advantages and disadvantages of Home-working Essay Most of organizations use ICT for their work. Using ICT has increase the pace of organizations by a huge factor as well as helping in many other ways. However, everything has its disadvantages as well as advantages; the disadvantages of using ICT is developing some physical diseases, increased chances of fraud through ICT, etc. Day by day, new technologies are exploited and new ways of using ICT is introduced to people. One of the changes that can be brought to an editing company is to increase the amount of home-working. Increasing home-working will have many positive effects on the organization as well as some bad. If home-working is increased, the staff will have an opportunity of preparing their ergonomics just the way they want it to be. This will provide the staff with a more comfortable environment, and a better status of the brain; this way the staff can be more active and contribute more to their job. The other benefit of increasing home-working is that the risk of hacking and fraud of the data is reduced. If the staff member does most of his/her work at home, this means that he stores it in his own personal area. If someone broke up into the company, they wont be able to find that information, because it is not stored in the companys ICT. If home-working is increased, the staff member will be able to do his/her work whenever, wherever he/she wants; this wont give them a hard time trying to show up in the office on time. It will also help reduce transport. The members can do the work from home and will not need to go to their office. The reduction in transport is proven helpful for the environment. The disadvantages of increasing home-working are that the worker should be a responsible person. Many people will not do something unless they are forced to. If the employee of an organization is an irresponsible person, home-working will shows a decrease in productivity of an organization. The staff member should be able to differentiate between their personal life and work life to be able to have as successful life. The other disadvantage of home-working is that the employee is independent while working; this might raise a temptation of not working in them since there is no boss to tell them to do the work. Also, the boss would not know which employee is more productive than others, therefore they wont be able to reward, or penalize any of the employees. Keeping to the deadlines is very important. If given a task to complete by a certain date, it will be the responsibility of the employee to manage their time and have the task done by the deadline. However there is no guarantee that something wont go wrong. Maybe for example, losing all the data due to some technical or software error in the computer. There might even be some kind of a physical damage to the machinery which will delay the task. But being away from the employers sight, it might be difficult to prove that such an incident had really take place.

Brother-Sister Marriages in Graeco Roman Egypt

Brother-Sister Marriages in Graeco Roman Egypt Was it common to find brother-sister marriages in Graeco-Roman Egypt? What is the Evidence for this? This essay will be focusing on brother-sister marriages in Graeco Roman Egypt, and the evidence that we have for it through papyri sources. Although inter-family marriages are not common today, they were certainly practised during Graeco-Roman Egypt. The aim of this essay is to high-light the reasons why such marriages occurred and also, provide evidence of such marriages by means of papyri letters, contracts and documents that was saved from the period. Furthermore, this paper is going to present ideas about incest, and whether or not brother-sister marriages were accepted by society, who can marry, and theories for inter-marriage. During the Roman Egypt period, a census was orchestrated every 14 years, in order to take a household count, and to control taxes. Today, only 172 legible census reports remain, and historians and papyrologists have used this information to analyse the lives of the Graeco-Roman Egypt citizens. This analysis and papyri evidence, and also the works of notable anthropologists, historians and papyrologists, has helped to answer and understand this argument today. Background and Origins of Brother-Sister marriage Nearly everybody in Roman Egypt was married at some point in their lives. Girls in Roman Egypt were expected to be married as young as 12, and definitely by their mid 20s. In Graeco Roman Egypt, marriage laws were different and confusing amongst each society. Marriages were performed under contracts, and for most marriages, there were no age restrictions, unlike today. The strangest element of Graeco-Roman Egypt was that there was no law against close-kin marriages. In fact, brothers and sisters often married as was practiced throughout the previous generations. Evidence for this came from the Roman period through papyri and census returns. It was believed that before the Roman period, women were the inheritors of the land and in order to keep it in the family, the inheritor would have had to marry her brother.The Romans prohibited this custom and would often confiscate the estate if such a marriage took place. However, this law did not apply for Egyptians. For many societies today, it is considered normal to avoid sexual relationships between full brother and sister. However, in the Mediterranean world, such as in the Greek and Roman societies, close kin marriages such as cousin-cousin or even uncle-niece marriages were accepted and encouraged. Brother-Sister marriages originated from the Egyptian tradition of â€Å"Royal incest† which was practised in Egypt by the Pharaohs as far back as 2000BC. According to anthropologist ÄÅ'erny, brother-sister marriages in the royal family were very frequent. For example, the marriage of brother and sister, Isis and Osiris, was seen as divine incest to avoid outsiders. Other Royal marriage amongst brother and sister was that during the Ptolemy Era in Egypt. Cleopatra and her brother Ptolemy XIV were married and she did bore his offspring. It is believed one of the explanations for these Royal marriages was a â€Å"strategy to avoid splitting up of property†or to maintain â€Å"ethnic political status† of the Greeks in Egypt. Although marriage between brother-sister was frequent within the royal family and in Graeco Roman Egypt during the second century CE, it was common for husbands to call their wives ‘sister. This is however not strong enough evidence to ce rtify brother-sister marriage. The laws for marrying brothers and sisters were different in each country. In Ancient Greece, Athenians were allowed to marry half siblings if they were from the same father but different mother whereas Spartans were allowed to marry half siblings from the same mother but different father. In Egypt it is argued to be customary to marry brother and sister. Greek King Ptolemy II continued this custom and married his sister Arsinoe which violated his native Macedonian custom. This started a ‘trend as the next seven of the eleven Greek kings of Egypt married their sisters. Full brother and sister marriage or â€Å"incestuous marriages† is believed to be a regular practise in Graeco Roman Egypt and it took place mainly amongst the elite population. The marriages were genuine, not just for bureaucratic reasons. Many sociologists find this hard to comprehend without returning to the taboo on incest. Evidence of the marriages was first noticed in papyri dating from as early as the first century CE. Although brother-sister marriage would be deemed incestuous today, evidence appearing in papyri shows that brother-sister marriages were socially and legally accepted at the time. This can be seen from official census returns which shows that a large percentage of the marriages were between brother and sister.However, as stated before, attention should be taken when interpreting the papyri. Private letters which were amongst the papyri found in the Fayyum area of Egypt, showed the terms ‘brother and ‘sister in letters between husbands and wives. This nevertheless, should not be taken as literally. Most of the papyri documenting these marriages originate from the Fayyum and according to Hopkins; the women are documented as being â€Å"wife and sister from the same father and the same mother† which â€Å"leaves little room for ambiguity†. Perhaps brother-sister marriage can be due to a restriction of choice. In Roman Egypt, marriages were most likely to have been arranged and therefore, many young women ended up marrying older men or men pre-arranged through family. For Greeks and Romans in Egypt, the choice was very limited as there was the political and social status to consider. Many Greeks did marry Egyptian women however, certain laws applied when it came to status regarding children. Marrying brother and sister was seen as the ideal solution to some Greek families as it overcame the issue of a dowry or the division of family property. Inter family marriages also overcame issues of Greek racism. Sociologist Brent Shaw suggests that Greek settlers in Egypt married within the family to separate themselves from the Egyptian population and to also keep a pure blood ancestry so to avoid tax disadvantages. Despite all these reasons, most scholars agree that although practised, it is known that both Greek and Roman societies prohibited any sexual relationship between siblings. However, in most cases, Greek traditions of endogamy were pushed to the limit. It is also believed amongst scholars that although practised throughout lower and upper Egypt, in the bigger towns rather than villages, inter family marriages were more common amongst the Greek than the Egyptians. This phenomenon of endogamy in Graeco Roman Egypt could be traced to Greek Oedipal mythology, which leads us to the subject of incest. Is Brother-Sister Marriage Considered Incest? Incest refers to sexual activity between two family members and is very much a cultural taboo in most societies and holds heavy penalties. Whilst parent-children or sibling-sibling relations are illegal, other relations such as cousin-cousin may be acceptable in other societies and cultures. The practice of brother-sister marriage has never been common among any other society apart from the Graeco-Roman Egyptian society. Full brother and sister marriage was practised throughout the first three centuries after Christ. Incestuous marriage was widespread during Graeco-Roman Egypt and the evidence for this show in numerous papyri and household census returns. Anthropologist Brent Shaw states that, â€Å"the word incest is linked to moral, social and legal norms established in Graeco-Roman antiquity.† The Latin word for incest- incestum means to be ‘unclean or ‘not pure which refers more specifically to committing a forbidden act between family members. In Graeco-Roman antiquity, there was a difference as to what was considered acceptable behaviour. Roman law and social practices regarding incestuous marriage was far more intolerable than those of Greek law and practices. Shaw states that the Greeks did not have a word similar to the Latin ‘incestumuntil the arrival of Christianity to the society. This shows the differences in attitude towards brother-sister and other close kin marriages.In Greek society, close kin marriage was more acceptable and practised than it was in Roman society. This attitude shows in the story of Oedipus and other stories of the same nature. This attitude was brought over to Egypt and even continued and encouraged. Marriage between cousins and half brother/sister marriages were accepted and became the norm for the Greek population in Egypt. This caused a clash with the Roman societys ‘stringent rules towards incest. Marriages between ethnicities, for example Greek or Roman-Egyptian were however frowned upon. It is not certain whether these marriages can be considered ‘incestuous as a long history of sibling marriage existed throughout the society. To them, this was regarded as the norm and it even existed amongst Egyptian Royalty. The addition of myths and stories justified that brother-sister marriage was accepted and that incest was doubtful. Potential Theories for Inter-Marriage In Egypt, this practice was common amongst the Royal family; however it was still considered a taboo. There are no real explanations as to why they adopted these practices but sociologist Hopkins believes that there are four theories behind inter-family marriage. One factor being the high rate of mortality. Research into the demography of Graeco Roman Egypt at the time, shows that the gap between surviving siblings is so high that the â€Å"son looking for a mate must go outside the family.† Therefore, the only way to solve this was to marry within the family. However, according to the â€Å"indifference theory† by J.R. Fox, belief was that â€Å"boys and girls living and playing together from childhood showed an absence of erotic feeling towards each other†. The main point behind this theory is that â€Å"boys and girls brought up together show no desire for incest.† However in contradiction to this, there were instances of incest between siblings which links to Sigmund Freuds theory of â€Å"suppression† where â€Å"incestuous desires come from the subconscious†.This again, relates to the influences of Greek myths such as Oedipus and stories of Egyptian Gods Isis and Osiris who were brother and sister as well as husband and wife. Social Class Social status may play a part in brother-sister marriages. Those with status liked to maintain â€Å"racial purity† and this was maintained through means of close-kin marriages. The social class in Graeco-Roman Egypt was divided. The Romans and Greeks lived privileged lives whereas the Egyptians remained poor. Therefore, marriages remained within the respective societies. With respect to inheritance, sibling marriages were favoured as any land was to be distributed equally among the children. However in regards to women in Graeco-Roman Egypt, property and land was secured by marriage contracts therefore being financially protected in the event of divorce of death of a husband. Those who still inherited land were not subject to the Roman tax poll. Women who married out of the family had to take along with her property that she had inherited. Therefore, the only way to keep property within the family, even if the marriage ended in divorce or death was to marry a brother. According to Greek practices the father had the power to choose a spouse for his daughter and so, the ideal solution was to arrange brother-sister marriages so that the family will not lose property as land was very important for social status and mobility, and was used for financial gain. As girls married young in Graeco-Roman Egypt, it was fairly easy to influence these marriages. Papyri Evidence of Brother-Sister Marriage Evidence for such marriages comes from the census household returns. However, the evidence can be seen as biased to the richer population as their papers would have been better preserved compared to those of the poor Egyptians. The census was conducted every 14 years between the years 19 C.E. and 257 C.E. Out of 172 of the legible census returns, between 15-21 per cent was marriage between brother and sister. 12 per cent of these marriages were between full brother and sister. Here are the papyri evidence for brother-sister marriage, which comes in the form of letters, wedding invitations, marriage contracts and birth registrations: Registering the birth of a son P.Oxy 2858 To Agathodaimon and Herakleidesscribes of the metropolis, from Kephalas son of Heron son of Theon and from his wife who is sister of the same father and of the same mother,Didumewe register the son born to us, Didumos. We deposit a notification of his birth. This is a document registering the birth of a son. The parents are citizens of the Metropolis Arsinoe. This was a privileged status and their reference of being husband and wife as well as brother and sister was necessary to identify themselves. Here is another example of a brother-sister couple registering the birth of their child: Apynchis and Tapasis, his sister-wife, registering their eight year old daughter 14 February 185 AD To Hermophilos, royal scribe of the Arsinoite nome. Herakleides division, from Aphynchis, son of an unknown father and his mother Tapholemis, and from his sister Tapasis, born from the same mother who is also his wifewe register our daughter Taesis, who was born to us both and is now eight years old The next papyri source comes from two parents who were also children of a brother-sister marriage. This papyri shows two generations of brother-sister marriages, therefore proving that it did occur and that it was common and accepted in society. P.Tebt.320 To Sarapionand Serenusexamining magistrates, from Eudaimon, son of Heron son of Souchas, his mother being Herons sister Thermoutharion and from his wife Sarapias who is his sister of the same father and of the same mother, both of metropolitan status Hopkins suggests that brother-sister marriage was due to parents wanting to save the expense of their daughters dowry. However, he also states that this was not an advantage in means of wealth as outside marriages could potentially bring in the same amount of wealth in terms of inheritance. Some Egyptians just chose to believe that brother-sister marriage would result in an economical advantage. This papyri is an example of a marriage settlement between brother and sister, where a dowry was specified. This proves that as well as this being a brother-sister marriage, the brother/husband also received a dowry from her, perhaps paid by their father. BGU 183; Mitteis, Chrestomathie 313 Horos son of Tesenophisaged about forty three years with a scar on the left calf agrees with his own sister by the same father and the same mother who is also his wife, Eriea, aged about thirty five years with a scarthat he as party to agreement has hereby received from hera dowry of silverto the value of twenty drachmae. Let the married pair live together without recrimination just as they have done before, and Horos is to provide all necessities and clothing befitting to a wedded wifeIf Horos leaves her, then he as party to the agreement is to return the dowry within thirty days of being asked for it Other evidence of brother-sister marriage comes in the form of a divorce contract. Even though the couple are brother and sister, sometimes, the marriage does not work out, and therefore ends in divorce. Here is an example of this: P.Mil.Vogl.85, AD 138 Copy of a contract;Kronion son of Kronion aged about 54 years with a scar on his left forearm and his ex wife Taorsenouphis, who is also his sister of the same father and of the same mother, aged 50 years without distinguishing marksagree with each other that their life together has been brought to an endand it is agreed that each of them may administer his own affairs as he chooses and Taorsenouphis can live together with another man without reprisal of any kind Brother-Sister marriages were seen as common and not abnormal, therefore they were celebrated openly and guests were invited by invitation: P.Oxy.524 Dionysius invites you to dinner at the marriage of his own children (teknà ´n)tomorrow, that is the 30th at the 9th hour P.Oxy. III Herais invites you to dinner at the marriage of her children at home tomorrow, that is the fifth, at the 9th hour. These wedding invitations clearly show that brother-sister marriage was in fact common and accepted by society. They also provide proof that such practices did occur. Invitations were usually delivered by hand the day before the wedding.> Private letters between husbands and wives may provide evidence of brother-sister marriage, but they cannot be seen as sufficient proof as calling someone ‘brother or ‘sister was seen as a term of endearment. There are archives of letters between husband and wife using these terms of endearment, however, the next source is of a letter from a husband to his wife and sister: P.Oxy.528 Serenus to Isidora, his sister and wife, many greetings. Before all else I pray that you are wellI want you to know that ever since you left me I have been grieving, weeping by night and lamenting by dayYou sent me letters which would have moved a stone, so much did your words affect me. Do let me know if you are coming back or not. This letter shows that although they were brother and sister, they were also affectionate as husband and wife. Love was an evident emotion in brother-sister marriage as well as in outside marriage. This goes to show that perhaps the children were not forced to marry but chose to marry out of love for their sibling. Evidence for love, comes in the form of this love letter, perhaps from a wife to her husband: P.Oxy.3059 Didyme to Apollonius, her brother and sun greetings.Know that I do not see the sun,Since I do not see you;I have no sun but you The archive of Apollonios the strategos and Aline, AD 113-120 This was an archive of over 200 Greek papyri, belonging to the wealthy Apollonios family who were landowners in the Hermopolite nome. Apollonios the strategos was part of the highest office in the bureaucracy of Graeco-Roman Egypt. Apollonios was married to Aline who was believed to also be his sister. The couple frequently wrote letters as Apollonios spent most of his time away from his family, addressing each other as ‘brother and ‘sister.> Aline to Apollonios C.Pap.Jud.II 436 (September AD 115) Aline to Apollonios her brother, many greetings. I am very worried about you, because of events that are said to be taking place and because you left me suddenlyPlease, then, keep yourself safe and do not put yourself in dangerTo Apollonios my brother. This could be proof that they were brother and sister, as well as husband and wife. However, due to the frequent use of ‘brother and ‘sister during the time, it is not certain whether this can be used as real evidence. We now return to the question being posed of this paper; â€Å"Was it common to find brother-sister marriages in Graeco-Roman Egypt?† The answer is indeed, yes, it was common to find these marriages. Brother-sister marriages were considered a norm for Graeco-Roman Egypt as it was practised* by ancestors before them. We also know that these marriages were sanctioned in traditional myths such as, the brother-sister marriage of Isis and Osiris. The Oedipus myth also allowed this practise to be justified. These marriages were not classed as ‘incestuous as it was very normal and traditional to marry within the family. Inheriting land and property also played a part in making these marriages common, as families wanted their land to be kept within the family. From the surviving evidence, we can see that people openly stated in letters and documents that they were ‘husband and wife of the same father and of the same mother. And wedding invitations were even sent to guests, inviting them to celebrate the family wedding. It is fair to say that these marriages were accepted. Brother-sister marriages were more common amongst the Greeks and Egyptians rather than the Roman citizens, as it was customary in Greek and Egyptian cultures. The genetic effects amongst offspring of these marriages are un-known as nothing in papyri states that family marriages links to this. However, considering some families only married within the family for several generations, it may be safe to say that there is no direct link between sibling marriage and genetic defects, which is probably why it was more acceptable during that period. References Bagnall, R.S. and B. Frier (1994) â€Å"The Demography of Roman Egypt† (Cambridge) Lindsay, J. (1963) â€Å"Daily Life in Roman Egypt† (Frederick Muller Limited) Lindsay, J. (1963) â€Å"Daily Life in Roman Egypt† (Frederick Muller Limited) Lindsay, J. (1963) â€Å"Daily Life in Roman Egypt† (Frederick Muller Limited) Huebner,S.R (2007) â€Å"Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt† (Columbia) Huebner,S.R (2007) â€Å"Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt†(Columbia) Shaw B.D. (1992) â€Å"Explaining Incest: Brother Sister Marriage in Graeco-Roman Egypt† Shaw B.D. (1992) â€Å"Explaining Incest: Brother Sister Marriage in Graeco-Roman Egypt† Hopkins, K. (1980) â€Å"Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt† Comparative Studies in Society and History Hopkins, K. (1980) â€Å"Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt† Comparative Studies in Society and History Hopkins, K. (1980) â€Å"Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt† Comparative Studies in Society and History Bagnall, R.S. and B. Frier (1994) â€Å"The Demography of Roman Egypt† (Cambridge) Hopkins, K. (1980) â€Å"Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt† Comparative Studies in Society and History Shaw B.D. (1992) â€Å"Explaining Incest: Brother Sister Marriage in Graeco-Roman Egypt† Endogamy-marriage within a particular society or tribe or ancestry J. Modrzejewski,(2005) â€Å"Greek law in the Hellenistic Period: Family and Marriage† (Cambridge) Hopkins, K. (1980) â€Å"Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt† Comparative Studies in Society and History Shaw B.D. (1992) â€Å"Explaining Incest: Brother Sister Marriage in Graeco-Roman Egypt† Shaw B.D. (1992) â€Å"Explaining Incest: Brother Sister Marriage in Graeco-Roman Egypt† Shaw B.D. (1992) â€Å"Explaining Incest: Brother Sister Marriage in Graeco-Roman Egypt† Shaw B.D. (1992) â€Å"Explaining Incest: Brother Sister Marriage in Graeco-Roman Egypt† Parker, S. (1996) â€Å"Full Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt: Another Look† Cultural Anthropology, Vol.11, No.3, pp362-376(American Anthropological Association) Hopkins, K. (1980) â€Å"Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt† Comparative Studies in Society and History Fox,J, R. (1962) â€Å"Sibling Incest†, British Journal of Sociology Vol. 13, No.2 pp.128-150 (Blackwell Publishing) Fox,J, R. (1962) â€Å"Sibling Incest†, British Journal of Sociology Vol. 13, No.2 pp.128-150 (Blackwell Publishing) Hopkins, K. (1980) â€Å"Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt† Comparative Studies in Society and History Parker, S. (1996) â€Å"Full Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt: Another Look† Cultural Anthropology, Vol.11, No.3, pp362-376(American Anthropological Association) Parker, S. (1996) â€Å"Full Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt: Another Look† Cultural Anthropology, Vol.11, No.3, pp362-376(American Anthropological Association) Parker, S. (1996) â€Å"Full Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt: Another Look† Cultural Anthropology, Vol.11, No.3, pp362-376(American Anthropological Association) Hopkins, K. (1980) â€Å"Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt† Comparative Studies in Society and History Parker, S. (1996) â€Å"Full Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt: Another Look† Cultural Anthropology, Vol.11, No.3, pp362-376(American Anthropological Association) Parker, S. (1996) â€Å"Full Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt: Another Look† Cultural Anthropology, Vol.11, No.3, pp362-376(American Anthropological Association) Rowlandson, J., (1998) Women Society in Greek Roman Egypt; a sourcebook. (Cambridge) Hopkins, K. (1980) â€Å"Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt† Comparative Studies in Society and History, Hopkins, K. (1980) â€Å"Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt† Comparative Studies in Society and History, Hopkins, K. (1980) â€Å"Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt† Comparative Studies in Society and History, Rowlandson, J., (1998) Women Society in Greek Roman Egypt; a sourcebook. (Cambridge) Rowlandson, J., (1998) Women Society in Greek Roman Egypt; a sourcebook. (Cambridge) Verb: ‘He practises the piano every day noun: ‘These practices have all but died out

The Fall of the Potato: Causes of the Great Famine Essay -- Essays Pap

The Fall of the Potato: Causes of the Great Famine Phythophthora infestans was the lethal fungus that infested Ireland's potato crop and eventually ruined all of the land it grew on. This time is called the Great Famine and has impacted Ireland due to its destructive extinction of the potato farms which caused disease, extreme poverty, and death. There are several circumstances to take into consideration when looking at the causes of the Great Potato Famine in Ireland. Due to the great dependence the Irish people had on the potato, it is clear how blight could devastate a country and its people. To understand the Irish people's dependence on the potato for diet, income, and a way out of poverty, it is necessary to look at several key factors that were evident before the famine. Factors such farming as the only way of life, rise in population, and limited crops explain why the people of Ireland relied on the potato. But not only do these reasons clarify why the famine hit the Irish people so hard, other important factors play into effect as well. By looking at the weak relationship between England and Ireland through parliamentary acts and trade laws, it is more evident what the causes of the Great Famine are and why it was so detrimental. The relationship between Ireland and England played a major role in the causes of the Great Famine. Ireland became part of the United Kingdom in 1801 due to the Act of Union (Edwards & Williams 19). Under this act, Ireland was placed under "the jurisdiction of the richest and most industrially advanced empire in the world" (Kinealy 33). From this act, Ireland's parliament was abolished and became controlled by England through political leadership established throughout the Irish state. A... ...remier. EBSCO. Roesch Library, Dayton, Ohio. 19 January 2004. http://library.udayton.edu/research/article/ - Edwards, R. Dudley and T. Desmond William. The Great Irish Famine: Studies in Irish History 1845-52. Dublin, Ireland: Browne & Dolan, Ltd., 1957. - Kinealy, Christine. â€Å"How Politics Fed the Famine†. Natural History 105 (1996): 33-3. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. Roesch Library, Dayton, Ohio. 19 January 2004. http://library.udayton.edu/research/article/ - O Grada, Cormac. The Great Irish Famine. England: MacMillan, 1989. - O Tuathaigh, Gearoid, ed. Ireland before the Famine, 1798-1848. Dublin, Ireland: Gill & MacMillan, Ltd., 1972. - Poirteir, Cathal. The Great Irish Famine. Dublin, Ireland: Mercier Press, 1995. - Whelan, Kevin. â€Å"Pre and Post-Famine Landscape Change.† O Tuathaigh 19-34.

santa clause :: essays research papers

Christmas, few people stop to think how it originated. Started as a pagan holiday during the time of Romans, it developed in to a Christian celebration dedicated for Christ. People in different age groups, both kids and adults, enjoy the season of Christmas. Christmas has been very big and an inspiring holiday for many families around the world for many centuries. Packed with busy shoppers, jingle bells, colorful lights and Santa Claus, Christmas is thought by many people to be â€Å"the most wonderful time of the year†. Winter, snow, Christmas tree, decorations and Santa Claus are very important things which makes us think that it is the most beautiful day of all the year. Everybody waits for Christmas, because that day has varies meaning for different people. But for kids, rather than shoppers, colorful lights, Santa Claus is their main reason why they count the days till Christmas eve. Even though one might say that Santa is just a big lie, Santa Claus brings a whole new m eaning to the season of Christmas. Although almost everyone has already figured out that Santa Claus is a big myth, kids, who are younger than 12 or 13 years, should have the right to be fascinated, to speculated, and to use Santa Claus as a possible role model.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Unlike adults most of the kids wait for this season of the year hoping that they might able to get a glance at Santa Claus and his best friends, reindeers. Santa Claus is one of the most important imaginary figures on this earth, who has touched the hearts and souls of many children, is Saint Nicholas. It is said that he placed gold coins in the socks of three poor sisters so that they would have a dowry and not be sold into prostitution. St. Nick, better known as Santa Claus, is notorious for bringing gifts to children that are in need. Known for having a huge belly and a gigantic heart, Santa Claus brings hope to kids who are hopeless and smiles to those who have lost theirs. While snuggled in their bed, desperately trying to catch a wink of sleep, children around the world await the arrival of Santa Claus. Dressed in red and with a jolly old smile, he manages to fulfill the dreams of kids throughout millions of miles.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Even though one might say that, from the

me :: essays research papers

I am currently taking an art class, which I love, some psychology classes (I had to pull strings to get into those ones, because they are only for juniors and seniors!) and a comp class (yours). Yo soy tanbien en espanol dos :) es muy interesante. (I am also in Spanish Two, it is very interesting!!!!!!!!)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I’m the oldest in my family, and I have a younger sister (12) and a younger brother (6). Since I was 11 years old, I have wanted to be an occupational therapist and teach disabled kids how to ride horses; it is something that I really enjoy doing. I also enjoy drawing (I'm in drawing two) and hablando en espanol. (Talking in Spanish). I am currently taking an art class, which I love, some psychology classes (I had to pull strings to get into those ones, because they are only for juniors and seniors!) and a comp class (yours). Yo soy tanbien en espanol dos :) es muy interesante. (I am also in Spanish Two, it is very interesting!!!!!!!!)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I’m the oldest in my family, and I have a younger sister (12) and a younger brother (6). Since I was 11 years old, I have wanted to be an occupational therapist and teach disabled kids how to ride horses; it is something that I really enjoy doing. I also enjoy drawing (I'm in drawing two) and hablando en espanol. (Talking in Spanish) I am currently taking an art class, which I love, some psychology classes (I had to pull strings to get into those ones, because they are only for juniors and seniors!) and a comp class (yours). Yo soy tanbien en espanol dos :) es muy interesante.

Accountability

Force, one is expected to be professional and ethical enough to make decisions that positively impact on his or her department to the extent that he/she can be accountable for actions or consequences that arise as a result of their decisions or choices.In the true essence of the word, accountability comes in where an individual is under the obligation to Justify their choice of actions o an interested party, in this case the US Air Force. As a medical professional within the air force, one is free to choose but never free from the consequences of his or her choice. It is important to be accountable especially in the military because it means one is under obligation to execute a given task whether they are willing to do it or not.Being accountable calls for the basic understanding of one's tasks and responsibilities, like in this case of a medical professional who is expected to know hat to do and when to do it with as minimum supervision as possible such that if anything goes wrong a s a result of their chosen actions, they can be held accountable. The importance of accountability in the US Air Force cannot be taken lightly as it may mean the difference between losing and saving a life. A military medical officer is expected to not only do his Job well, but also ensure those around him execute their tasks properly too.One does not have to experience combat to understand that Just being in the military Is Inherently dangerous given the types of equipment and weapons that are used to train and deploy with. As an example any live weapons range you go to part of the safety brief Is â€Å"everyone here is a range safety' meaning anyone can call a cease fire If they observe dangerous behavior or a situation regardless of rank and It can be a Colonel or a brand new private or even a medical officer, does not matter. As such In that event everyone becomes accountable.

Attachment and Divorce

Attachment and Divorce: FAMILY CONSEQUENCES Bowlby's, Ainsworth's, and Shaver's research created the understanding that infant styles create a disposition for later behavioral traits. More current research has questioned the significance of how the disruption of the attachment structure (such as in divorce) can affect children's behaviors throughout life. The research on this topic is contradictory and somewhat inconclusive, with research asserting that either attachment style or external environment has been the main contributor to the behaviors seen in members of divorced families, while many sources stated that it is likely to be a combination of both influences. With either explanation, research concludes that children of divorced families have a disposition to these behaviors, but the end development of behavior and personality is in the hands of the individual and the external factors that are present. Abstract The attachment theory that was developed by Harlow, Bowlby, and Ainsworth, which states that attachment is a key aspect to determining personality and behavior throughout an individual's lifetime. Attachment can be defined as the strong bond that develops first between parent and child, and later in peer and romantic relationships (Bowlby, 1969). Research on divorce and separation of attachment figures has yielded conflicting results. It is often reported that children of divorce have trouble adapting to different stages of their lives because of their experience with broken or detached attachment bonds. These children are said to have no accurate template for successful relationships to replicate in their lives. Other research provided results that children of divorce adapt to life's situations and relationships within normal ranges when compared to their peers (Armistead, Forehand, Summers, & Tannenbaum, 1998). Taking this into account, these researchers looked to peer relations, socioeconomic status, general distress, or poor parenting skills to explain the appearance of troublesome behavior or poor grades. The study of all aspects of divorce and attachment is important to how parents, psychologists, and teachers approach and understand children of divorced families in order to help them reach their full potential as adults. Overview of Attachment Theory The attachment theory has a basis in three theoretical approaches and was first related to primate and infant-mother studies. The three approaches include a psychoanalytic approach, the social learning approach, and the ethological theory of attachment (Ainsworth, 1969). Childhood attachment styles are clearly based on the emotional bond between the parent and child, as opposed to a biological push to become attached. A study on adopted children shows that positively formed attachments heighten the chance for a well-adjusted life, regardless of the biological relation of the attachment figure (Juffer, Stams & van IJzendoorn, 2002). â€Å"Even in a biologically unrelated group of parents and their adopted children from different cultures and ethnic backgrounds, early child-parent relationship characteristics played a significant role in shaping children's adjustment in middle childhood† (Juffer et al. 2002, p. 814). Harlow (1958) experimented with infant rhesus monkeys by removing them from their mothers and offering them a choice between two surrogate mothers, one made of terrycloth, the other of wire. In the first group, the terrycloth mother provided no food while the wire mother did, in the form of an attached baby bottle containing milk. I n the second group, the terrycloth mother provided food; the wire mother did not. The young monkeys clung to the terrycloth mother regardless it provided them with food, and that the other young monkeys chose the wire surrogate only when it provided food. The monkeys in the terrycloth study fared better in many aspects of their lives compared to others who were provided with only a wire mother, and were more likely to be adjusted physically, psychologically, and socially compared to the monkeys raised by the wire mother. Harlow concluded from his research that the primates are better off in their lives when given more comfort, attention, and grooming when compared to those who were deprived of these elements (Harlow). Harlow (1958) also noted that the infant monkeys formed a close bond, or attachment to their surrogate cloth mothers. These surrogate mothers were often used as a secure base when opportunities to venture and explore were presented. This was done in order to see how the infants adapted to the surroundings. These infants used their emotional bond to ensure that they would not be harmed when encountering new objects. Also, when a threatening stimulus was presented in this lab experiment, the monkeys retreated to the cloth mothers for safety. This correlates with Ainsworth's (1967) finding that infants in Uganda use their mothers as a secure base to explore, occasionally leaving their sights, but periodically returning to ensure themselves that they are still there. Bowlby (1969) also conducted research on attachment, recognizing the undeniable bond between infants and their primary care givers. In a variety of cultures that have been studied, the majority of children ranging in age from nine months to one year old have exhibited strong attachment behavior towards their primary care giver. This trend continued until three to four years of age, where the attachment weakened slightly. Hopefully at this point, the child is secure enough to briefly venture from the mother, and begin to develop other interactions and attachments (Bowlby). The notion that attachment extends throughout the life of an individual is noted in sections of Ainsworth’s and Bowlby's literature. Bowlby (1969) stated that over time, the attachment that infants have for their parents is subtly weakened. The degree to which it is weakened depends on the temperament of the child, which in turn determines how readily new attachment bonds are sought out and formed. Bowlby also researched the effect that temporary loss of the mother had on human infants, and his findings were expanded upon by the development of the Strange Situation Procedure developed by Ainsworth. Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, and Wall (1978) solidified Bowlby's research on infants and developed three main attachment styles. These styles are based on Ainsworth's (1978) studies of temporary loss of the main attachment figure within a controlled lab setting. This research was called the Strange Situation Procedure. The results showcased the distinct attachment characteristics for each style. Avoidant infants focus their attention mainly on toys that are found around the research room, not directly on the mother. The children appear to be independent and confidant, but there is intentional avoidance of the mother figure occurring. Once the mother is removed, these infants become detached and avoid the substitute caretaker. When returning, the infant continues to avoid the parent (Ainsworth et al. , 1978). Secure infants are genuinely social and explorative within the environment. They are friendly to the mother and caretaker, although can be wary of strangers. Secure infants show signs of anger and sadness when the mother is removed, but eventually adjust to the absence. These infants are generally excited upon the return of the mother (Ainsworth et al. , 1978). Lastly, the Anxious or Ambivalent pattern of behavior in infants shows signs of anxiety and hostility towards the parent. The Ambivalent infant is shows aggression toward the mother, but longs to be close to her at the same time. This behavior occurs both before and after the parent returns to the room (Ainsworth et al. , 1978). Hazan and Shaver (1987) continued this line of research and adapted the original attachment styles to patterns of attachment behavior in adult romantic relationships. The same three attachment styles remain true for adjustment and behavior in adult relationships (Hazan, & Shaver). The securely attached infants matured into adults that were more likely to experience balanced relationships of a desirable duration. The Avoidant infants grew up to have a few short relationships, if any at all. Ambivalent infants became adults who had frequent partners, but often to not allow themselves or their partner to establish the close bond that they would like to form. Separation From an Attachment Figure Spouse Marriage is a highly significant form of attachment bond that has negative consequences when broken. Bowlby realized and supported the notion that as we grow older, we form new attachments with multiple important figures throughout our lives (Bowlby, 1969). For infants, it is only natural to form attachments with the people who care for them most, in regards to their physiological and emotional needs. As people mature, the old attachments are only severed after great strain, and new attachments are made along the way. New attachments can be friends, co-workers or romantic interests (Bowlby, 1969). The effects of divorce on the adults who are engulfed in the situation tend to be as stressful as those found in the children. Weiss' (1976) work showed that the reaction of couples after divorce is similar to the core set of reactions of other examples where attachment is broken, including the reactions of children. Kobak (1999) refered to the Weiss study and stateed that the availability of an attachment figure in relationships is important to the strength of the bond. When this availability is broken, much like an enhanced Strange Situation Procedure for adults, the security of one spouse or the other is threatened. Berman (1988) noticed from his study of divorced couples, that there is often a strong sense of longing for the estranged partner, and a mourning of the loss is experienced. He also noted that there is a seemingly illogical mix of anger, resentment, and lingering positive feelings for the estranged spouse. Weiss (1976) explained this by stating; This persisting bond to the spouse resembles the attachment bond of children to parents described by Bowlby. Indeed it seems reasonable to surmise that the bond we observe to persist in unhappy marriages is an adult development of childhood attachment (p. 138). Although the distress caused by divorce is great for both partners, it is easier to see how adults cope with the broken attachment because of their life experiences, maturity, and alternate sources of support. In contrast, children rely mainly on few attachment figures and often lack the coping skills that adults have refined. Children Children usually lose a degree of contact with one of their very few attachment figures when a divorce occurs. It is a confusing and stressful time for children, regardless of whether the divorce was amicable or not. Booth, Clarke-Stewart, McCartney, Owen, & Vandell (2000) refer to various national studies when they stated that poor school performance, low self-esteem, behavior problems, distress, and adjustment difficulties are associated with divorce. In adolescents from divorced families they noted more instances of delinquent behavior, early sex activity, and continued academic issues. In contrast, there have also been comparable studies that detect no unusual behavior or emotional distress occurring from divorce (Armistead et al. , 1998). For example, one study involved extensive questionnaires and concluded that the average scores attained from the children were within normal ranges when compared to children of intact families (Armistead et al. ). There are many factors that may play into how children's attachments are altered after a divorce, gender and age being the two most documented variables. Children's adjustment and the factor of age. The behavioral reaction of a child to divorce has been shown to correlate with the age group when the divorce or separation occurs. In a controversial study of divorced families, Blakeslee & Wallerstein (1989) stated that most children have the same initial feelings. â€Å"When their family breaks up, children feel vulnerable, for they fear that their lifeline is in danger of being cut† (p. 12). They then went on to discuss the age differences and how the stage at which divorce occurs can impact what behaviors may take place. Blakeslee and Wallerstein (1989) observed, Little children often have difficulty falling asleep at bedtime or sleeping through the night. Older children may have trouble concentrating at school. Adolescents often act out and get into trouble. Men and women may become depressed or frenetic. Some throw themselves into sexual affairs or immerse themselves in work (p. xii). Booth et al. (2000) conducted wide sampling research and realized that the worst initial reactions and behaviors that occur close to the date of the divorce were by the youngest children. In a follow-up study 10 years after the divorce, however, the youngest children were adjusting to their new environments and interactions better than siblings who were older at the time of the divorce. Children's adjustment and the factor of sex. Gender difference between children in a divorce plays a very important role in how they adjust. This is true during the time of the divorce and has lasting effects in adult life. Multiple studies have agreed that boys and girls react differently to the reduced contact with a major attachment figure. Boys seem to have an especially difficult time with divorce, causing them to have trouble at school, withdraw from social interactions, or start fights with peers (Blakeslee & Wallerstein, 1989). However, Amato (2001) wrote a follow up study to his earlier meta-analysis findings. In this earlier study, behavior traits were ranked in children with divorced parents and observed negative behaviors. The current study emphasizes that differences are not unique to either boys or girls. Amato and Keith (1991) found that the deficit in social adjustment associated with marital disruption was greater for boys than for girls. In the 1990s, divorce was associated with greater conduct problems among boys than girls. But the more general conclusion–in the earlier meta-analysis as well as in the present one–is that most of the disadvantages associated with divorce are similar for boys and girls. These findings imply that the stress on the children is equal, although they may show it in differing ways. Amato's (2001) follow up study also went to great lengths to show that current trends in gender differences are not as severe as they were once thought to be. Children of Divorce: Outcomes Short-term outcomes for children from divorced families seem to be troubled, but the outcome becomes increasingly optimistic as the children age and mature (Blakeslee & Wallerstein, 1989). The individuals who were interviewed by Wallerstein (1989) showed a strong desire to fix what their parents could not within their own adult lives. They wanted to have stable families and relationships, although many viewed this dream as idealistic, not realistic. â€Å"They fear betrayal. They fear abandonment. They fear loss. They draw an inescapable conclusion: Relationships have a high likelihood of being untrustworthy; betrayal and infidelity are probable† (Blakeslee & Wallerstein, p. 55). Regardless of the long term effects on these particular interviewees, Amato and Keith (1991) concluded after their own assessment that children of highly conflicted families who are not divorced fare worse over time than children with divorced parents. This shows that distance from an attachment figure may be better than living in a troubled environment. Blakeslee and Wallerstein (1989) observed through their years of interviews with children of divorce an occurrence known as the Sleeper Effect. It is defined as, â€Å"a delayed reaction to an event that happened many years earlier† (Blakeslee & Wallerstein, p. 60). The Sleeper Effect is seen mostly in young women whose parents divorced while they were young children. As previously noted, boys are more likely to act out during the time of divorce, showing their aggression and anger at the situation (Amato and Keith, 1991). Girls on the other hand, seem to keep this frustration inside. This pent up emotion is theorized to show its effects later in the lives of these girls (Blakeslee & Wallerstein). Its effects are described as, â€Å"particularly dangerous because it occurs at the crucial time when many young women make decisions that have long-term implications for their lives. Suddenly overcome by fears and anxieties, they begin to make connections between these feelings and their parents' divorce† (Blakeslee & Wallerstein, p. 61). Most attachment and divorce literature claims attachment is an integral part of the outcomes seen in children from divorced families. However, many of these sources also mention the presence of secondary factors such as income, mother's employment status, or peer relationships. These factors can also play a key role in determining how a child deals with divorce. For example, Booth et al, (2000) summarized their results and said that during the early stages of life, it is perhaps most important that the available parent has good parenting skills. This, they say, is more important to the outcome of the child than the family structure, meaning that parenting practices have a greater effect on children than marital status. They mention that lack of education, depression, low income, and inadequate support from the mother leads to poor adjustment and behavior in young children. Many of these factors can be brought on by a divorce, such as lack of support or attention for children, depression, and economic status. The fading stigma of divorce is another universal factor that has been observed to change the well being of these children. Contrary to the past, divorce is not viewed as a degrading occurrence, which once brought social exclusion, shame, and the feeling of failure to family members. Similarly, the current volume has increased, and current divorces are not preceded by as much violence and anger as in the past (Amato, 2001). Conclusion The somewhat contrasting views provide a solid, yet inconclusive basis for our understanding of how divorce affects families. Different views have been discussed, including the attachment theory and the effects of family environments. The research has uncovered a wealth of knowledge about how adults and children deal with loss and feelings of abandonment and insecurity. There were many common reactions to divorce that have been observed over these situations, including sadness, anger, insecurity, and lack of trust, which can lead to depression, conduct issues, or unrealistic relationship views. Regardless of these common findings, many children of divorce eventually learn to accept the past and look toward their futures. There are still many avenues that can be taken in the research techniques and literature surrounding divorce and children, but the detrimental findings of the 1970's seem to have faded, along with (and possibly because of) the social stigmas that have been linked to divorce. References Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1967). Infancy in Uganda: Infant care and the growth of attachment. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1969). Object relations, attachment and dependency. Child Development, 40, 969-1025. Ainsworth, M. D. S. , Blehar, M. C. , Waters, E. , & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Amato, P. R. (2001). Children of divorce in the 1990s: An update of the Amato and Keith (1991) meta-analysis. Journal of Family Psychology, 15, 355-370. Amato, P. R. , & Keith, B. (1991). Parental divorce and adult well-being: A meta-analysis. Journal of Marriage & the Family, 53, 43-58. Armistead, L. , Forehand, R. , Summers, P. , & Tannenbaum, L. (1998). Parental divorce during early adolescence in Caucasian families: The role of family process variables in predicting the long-term consequences for early adult psychosocial adjustment. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66, 327-336. Berman, W. H. (1988). The role of attachment in the post-divorce experience. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 496-503. Blakeslee, S. , & Wallerstein, J. S. (1989). Second chances: Men, women and children a decade after divorce. New York: Ticknor & Fields. Booth, C. , Clarke-Stewart, K. A. , McCartney, K. , Owen, M. T. , & Vandell, D. L. (2000). Effects of parental separation and divorce on very young children. Journal of Family Psychology, 14, 304-326. Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and loss: Attachment (Vol. 1). New York: Basic. Harlow, H. F. (1958). The nature of love. American Psychologist, 13, 573-585. Hazan, C. , & Shaver, P. R. (1987). Romantic love conceptualized as an attachment process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 511-524. Juffer, F. , Stams, G. J. J. M. , & van Ijzendoorn, M. H. (2002). Maternal sensitivity, infant attachment, and temperament in early childhood predict adjustment in middle childhood: The case of adopted children and their biologically unrelated parents. Developmental Psychology, 38, 806-821. Kobak, R. (1999). The emotional dynamics of disruptions in attachment relationships. In J. Cassidy & P. R. Shaver (Eds. , Handbook of attachment (pp. 21-43). New York: Guilford. Nakonezny, P. A. , Shull, R. D. , & Rodgers, J. L. (1995). Divorce rate across the 50 states and its relation to income, education, and religiosity. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 57, 477-488. Waite, L. J. , & Gallagher, M. (2000). The case for marriage. New York: Doubleday. Warner, R. L. , & Seccombe, K. (2003). Marriage and families: Relationships in social context. To ronto, Canada: Wadsworth. Weiss, R. S. (1976). The emotional impact of marital separation. Journal of Social Issues, 32, 135-145.

Divine Command Theory Essay

Divine Command Theory is an ethical theory which claims that God’s will is the foundation of ethics. Based on Divine Command Theory, things are morally right or wrong, compulsory, allowed or disallowed if God or deities commands it. In Divine Command Theory, what makes an act moral or immoral is that God commands or prohibited it. Apart from being commanded by God to do certain thing, some other aspect of Divine Command Theory, also hold that an action is moral if Divine motivated. In this motivation aspect of Divine Command Theory, we can say that apart from the religious documents someone can be motivated to carry out moral. The Divine Command Theory is divided by some Scholars into three ethical sub frame work: (1) Religion communities, (2) Command as motivated (3) Created morality. These three sub frame work is in practice in all the major religion of the world today, like Christian, Islam and Judaism, but with slit difference. The Religion Communities Frame Work This type of Divine command Theory hold that only God commands is moral. And that only the true believers of God’s command or religion community members can explain and obey God’s command. For instance some Christian denomination claim that when you are in the Church auditorium and it compound one need to put off his shoe to follow what God instructed Moses in Media, thus seeing the auditorium to represent the holy place in that particular passage of the Bible, while other do not interpret the passage that way. The Religion Community Frame work views the Divine Command Theory meaningless to unbelievers. And that they (non believer) cannot abide with God command except they believed in God. The Command as Motivation Framework This frame work holds that some actions are morally right without Divine commands, but God’s commands empower or motivate people to act morally. In other words some actions are morally good even if God do not issue command, but the commands of God put people in proper shape to act in accordance with that morality The proponent of this frame work believed that only individual who truly believed in God can obey God’s command. They claim that if someone did not believe in God, he may want to be moral, but such person will act contrary to these moral when they are in difficult situation because of lack f motivation. For example if someone who does not believe in God, he may decide not to steal but when faced with challenges like; lacking or hunger he may revised his decision. But someone who believed in God will be motivated by the command to abide by the term. The Created Morality Frame Work Created morality hold that only God will and commands are moral. Any actions outside God are immoral. This framework tries to establish that only those who believed in God can do things which are moral. And that anything done without acknowledge to God’s will is immoral. In other words no action is good on its own, rather God determine what is good. For instance if someone refuse to steal in other not to put pains on ethers as a result of the loose of his property, the person is not moral because he is not refraining because God is against that act. The view of divine command theory is one that ties together morality and religion in a way that is very comfortable for most people, because it provides a solution to pesky arguments like relativism and objectivity of ethics. An action is morally acceptable if God commands such an action and morally wrong if God prohibit such an action. The theory has been criticized by numerous philosophers, including Plato, Kai Nielson, and J. L. Mackie. The theory also has many defenders, both classic and contemporary, such as Thomas Aquinas, Robert Adams, and Philip Quinn. Although the basic premise of the divine command theory is rather simple (what God commands is good, therefore do only that). Things get somewhat complicated once we start to consider why God’s commands are good. In the light of the foregoing, had it been that God commanded otherwise e. g. we should inflict suffering on others for fun, then doing so would be morally right. We would be obligated to do so, because God commanded it. If God commanded us to inflict such suffering, doing so would become the morally right thing to do. People would conclude by saying that the foundation of morality becomes arbitrary. The main fact is that, that God could have made a different decision does not make His decision arbitrary. What is in accordance with God’s command is moral and what is contrary to that command is immoral, period. It must be concluded that any independent views people have on what is moral and immoral are irrelevant and irreverent. As God will never change, so moral truth will never change. A major assumption of the divine command theory of ethics is that God is good (benevolent) and only wills good things (or issues good commands) for the sake of humanity. Any concern over the nature of God’s command merely indicates that such people do not have complete faith in God, and therefore, in His command. If they did, then they would be wholly unquestioning of, and obedient to Him. The criticisms over divine command theory would simply not arise, for people who have the genuine, and therefore complete, faith in Him. God created the universe and everything in it, including human being. If God created human beings, then God has an absolute claim on our obedience, if God has an absolute claim on our obedience, then we should always obey God’s commands. Therefore, the divine command theory is true. Criticism of Divine Command Theory: The Euthyphro dilemma Critics of Divine command theory have used the Euthyphro dilemma since the period of Plato who spoke through the mouth of Socrates to criticize the Divine command theory, that says morality should based on what God or gods commanded. The Euthyphro dilemma is named after Plato’s dialogue â€Å"The Euthyphro† in which Socrates posed a question â€Å"Is the pious loved by the gods because it is pious, or is it pious because it is loved by the gods? † In other words Socrates is asking, whether something is good because God or gods pronounced or commanded that we should do it, or something is good that made God or gods to pronounce or commanded it. Whichever way one support on this Euthyphro dilemma, it is still very controversial. For instance, if someone says something is good because God or gods pronounced or commanded that we should do it, such person will be met with two objections: the abhorrence objection and the emptiness objection. The Abhorrence Objection If an action is good only because God command such action, then what would happen if God or gods chose to issue an abhorrent command? What if instead of God command that we should not kill, He changes it to we should kill or commit other atrocities like robbery, raping, etc. Under Divine command theory or to support divine command theory, an abhorrent would be requiring. That is it a most that such atrocity is committed, in order to be moral. This may contradict a believer expectation of God or gods yet it would require abhorrent to the commandment because God or gods commanded such. In Divine command theory we say the mass killing of people including children by the Israelites recorded in the Holy Bible or the fanatic Muslim like â€Å"boko haram† who kills in the name of religion is moral. But does these really justifies morality? A deep look at this will continue to generate more problems. For instance some people will classify that some act that others do, that they do not subscribe to is not from God or gods. So how can we then know that which is from God or how can we identify those that God directed to carry out his will? This will be the next question that might be raised. The Emptiness Objection If any particular action is good because God commands such, then God serve as the ultimate arbiter of what is morally right and wrong. An issue will then arise, whether the statement â€Å"God is good† has any meaning where God determines what is good. Divine Command Theory proponent state â€Å"God is good†, while the Divine Command Theory itself claim that â€Å"good is whatever God commands†. The emptiness objection transposes these statements and claim that saying â€Å"God is good† is the same thing as â€Å"go Some said the multiple religions in the world which claim to have different command from the same od is whatever God commands†. The argument is then made that this statement is empty or meaningless. Because abhorrent of Divine Command Theory strongly believed that the concept â€Å"God is good† and â€Å"good is whatever God commands† are meaningful. The Irrelevance Objection Looking at the other aspect of the Euthyphro dilemma, that is, if someone says something is good that made God or gods pronounce or commanded it becomes more problematic. This is called the irrelevance objection which is totally against the divine command theory. This holds that something is moral or immoral independence of God’s will. So even God commanded it or not it is still morally alright. Other Criticism of Divine Command Theory Apart from the Euthyphro dilemma oppositionist of Divine command theory also try to argue in other form to render the Divine command theory uncalled for. Some said the multiple religions in the world which claim to have different command from the same God in which some of the commands are against each other. For example, Muslim and Christian even Judaism will have different view or notion on a particular issue and each will claim that God commands such. The question then is, how can the same God give out this kind different command to this people? The critics said if God is the one that gave this command it must be a universal command. Meanwhile other critics of Divine Command Theory asked an epistemological question, how can we know the will and command of God? They asked further, if the scripture can be used as guide to morality? Some proceed to asked, if the scripture is still the will of God to this present age or for the living then? They, the critics said if Divine Command is a motivator, how then can we use the scripture as guide to morality? They claim that obey the scripture should not be seen as obeying divine command. Because, God or the deities that gave this command is still alive and we continue to issue new commands, they added that as people heard the command many centuries ago, people must hear it now and will continue to hear until the deity or God does not exist again. Many Philosophers and Religious over many centuries have attempted to proof the objection raised by the Euthyphro Dilemma as unsound argument against the Divine Command Theory. These defenders of Divine Command Theory argue that the logical flow of the argument of Socrates is invalid. The Divine command Theorist claim that it is not necessary that the believer in this command of God or gods limit them self to either of the two point of the Euthyphro dilemma postulated by the Plato’s intellectual work. The Divine Command Theorist also tries to disagree with each of the objection raised by the Euthyphro dilemma. Some of the advocates of the Divine Command Theory said, the abhorrent objection is not correct because God is a loving God and can never or we never issue a command which is abhorrent. With this they rule out any possibility of God issue an abhorrent command. Meanwhile others proponent of Divine Command Theory hold that, God nature will prevent him from issuing abhorrent command. On the emptiness objection, defenders of Divine Command Theory argue that, it is never an empty statement to claim that God is good and that what God commands is good. They argued logically that if God is good, everything he does or says is good, therefore God command is good. The irrelevance objection was counter on the ground that, if something is good prior to the time God issue a commands such, God is the one that made it good then. And now that he issues a command to effect it can never be said to be irrelevance to the goodness of that. In other words things that are good are made so by no other person but by God. And if God decided that what is good before should now be made a command, it is to make people act in accordance to the nature of God which is good. New form of Divine Command Theory The critic argument against Divine command Theory and many other problems raised about it have made it difficult to be practice by religion in society of this world. This has also made advocates to put forth strong argument for Divine Command Theory. Philosopher like Robert Adams postulated a reform Divine Command Theory, where he substituted the word God with ‘loving god’, he argue that a loving God will never issue an abhorrent command. He therefore suggests that any command that tends to be abhorrent in nature is not from loving God. And that that must not be obey. In other words people that do things that are not moral, and tried to link it God’s command should be disregarded, because God cannot give abhorrent command. This reformed Divine Command Theory is now what must religions of the world practice which also go in line with normal ethical theory.

International Travel Essay

No matter how much you read ahead of time, you’ll be confronted with culture and custom that you are unprepared for. The farther removed the culture is from your own, the more you can expect to be surprised. Novice travelers will struggle with the basics†¦ everything from getting a cab to finding a public bathroom can offer a challenge. Veteran travelers will be more secure with the small stuff and that may offer them a firm-enough foundation to give them the confidence to try the more challenging things. That is where we were on our recent adoption trip to China: Veteran third-time travelers who were confident that we could do anything and blend right in. Our trip to the real Chinese restaurant taught us otherwise. It was our second week in China. We were there with our two previously adopted Chinese children, ages ten and eleven, and we’d just added a new family member. She was a new daughter, age twelve, and she spoke not a word of English. Things had been going very well, and our new daughter was really fitting in seamlessly. This being our third trip, we felt pretty cocky. We snickered good-naturedly as first-time travelers timidly peeked outside the doors of the hotel onto the Chinese thoroughfare. They might make a run for the McDonald’s now and again, or go all the way up the block to KFC, but actually heading out into the big city, sans guide, was not on their bucket list for the time being. That was not for us. We decided that we’d all head out to an authentic local restaurant, the sort frequented by the Chinese rather than by westerners; the type with plastic curtains rather than doors; a restaurant with no western influences beyond the ubiquitous presence of Coca-Cola products. Three hungry children herded between us, my wife and I set out to find just the right place. We headed out the less-frequently-used rear entrance of Guangzhou’s China Hotel, which spilled out onto the broad Panfu Avenue, a typical busy main thoroughfare. It was filled with small shops and stalls, looking shabby and temporary to Western eyes, though in reality, permanent centers of street commerce. We wound our way through typical robust foot traffic, straining to keep the kids together amidst the crowds. We passed up several restaurants close to the hotel in an effort to separate ourselves from the tourist-oriented places, but several blocks away we came upon the Liushen Xiguan restaurant, which translates roughly as â€Å"Traditions of the Six Gods† restaurant. It was clad in gold paint, trimmed with red cloth, and several large Buddhas smiled at us as they stood sentry on the sidewalk. The wall in the entryway was covered with awards given by the local of chamber of commerce, and as an added benefit, the awards each offered a picture of the winning dish. Velvet padded bamboo chairs lined the wall in the waiting area. Peeking through the windows, we could see that the dining area was enormous. Such a place was likely to have good food, was clearly worth a stop. It was 4:50 when we asked to be seated, but oddly, the dining room was dark and the hostess desk was empty†¦ as were the tables. No table cloths or place settings were to be seen, and the chairs were upended and sitting atop the tables. A hostess apprehensively approached us to talk. After much arm flapping and hand gesturing, we came to understand that the restaurant would not open until five P. M, although we could not see how it would do so. Not a soul was to be seen besides the hostess, and nothing was prepared for customers. We began to have second thoughts and we started to wonder if we’d misunderstood the hour that service would start. We decided to wait for a bit, if only to rest. At the stroke of five the lights came on to illuminate a dozen employees rushing from the kitchen, bearing ornate livery for the tables, and tools of the trade for the hungry guests. The dining space went from abandoned warehouse to friendly, well-lit, white linen appareled eatery in a matter of moments. Once seated, we began to notice differences from what we expected in a restaurant. Soup bowls appeared, as well as a pot of tea, tea cups, and a large empty ceramic bowl. We watched the other tables to see what use our fellow diners would have for the bowl. Some diners were watching us. Perhaps they didn’t know what to make of the empty bowl either? More likely, they were wondering what a couple of Americans were doing here staring at them too. Other diners were taking the cups, bowls, and spoons and washing them in the tea, using a rather practiced method. The used tea was discarded into the empty bowl. I wasn’t sure if this meant we needed to do our own dishes, or if it was simply a custom. To be on the safe side, we started washing. I noticed curious grins. Was I doing it wrong? Did we appear like children playing in a wading pool? Unblemished by the bemused stares, we toweled ourselves dry, and with confidence in the cleanliness of our place settings, we dug into the menu. There were thirty pages of menu items. Many had pictures and some had English translations, though mostly the translations read â€Å"Pork and vegetables in sauce† or â€Å"Chicken with vegetables in sauce†. While I’m certain that was accurate, it was of little value in helping us to choose from amongst the twenty five varieties of â€Å"Pork with vegetables in sauce†. We struggled with the pictures and each made the best possible dinner choices we could, with a few appetizers added in. The waitress took our order promptly and returned in a few minutes with my meal, and nothing else. No appetizers. No other orders. Just mine. She placed it in the center of the table and left. My meal was far larger than I expected. In fact, it was large enough to feed us all. Suddenly we grasped what we had missed. The table top was essentially an enormous lazy Susan. It appeared that we would be eating family style. Other tables were sharing food as well, so we set out to share the barbecued pork I had ordered. A few moments later the next meal appeared, and shortly thereafter, the next, and then the next, each meal large enough to feed a family of five. Even the items we’d been led to believe were appetizers seemed enormous. Before long, we had enough food for forty people. There was so much, that the server was barely able to find room for the last steaming bowl of fried rice. I’ve been to weddings that served less food than we’d purchased. We were clearly the center of attention now as we made an effort to at least put a dent in the spread we were responsible for. The pictures didn’t do the food justice, nor were they worth the thousands words I’d so often been promised. The fried rice was filled with boldly colored fresh carrots, peas and sprouts, and those turned out to be the only vegetables on the table that we easily recognized. We were served steamed and pan-fried dumplings, bursting with juices and filled with meat stuffing. There was a whole roasted chicken, the bright yellow color of a school bus. When I say whole, I mean it. Chicken in China often comes with feet, head and beak attached. It appeared that our dinner had walked straight from the barnyard to the oven. A second chicken was served in pieces which had the bright red color of a fire engine. Both birds were juicy and offered bold flavor, the yellow one having been seasoned with a curry and the red one more of a peppery spice. The seafood dish seemed a bit more tentacle-filled than we were used to, and it went largely unloved. I still have no clue to this day what was in it, though I will admit that the description â€Å"fish with vegetables in sauce† seemed unerringly accurate. Our crisp pork on a platter seemed straightforward. No sauce or vegetables, though I could swear that the translation of the dish said they were included. Our meal was rounded out by a course of tea smoked duck. The dark meat had been roasted over a tea leaf fueled fire and had a deep rich flavor. After some of our other mis-translations, I would not have been surprised to have had it served in a pipe for actual smoking, but it wound up being the best part of the meal. I do hope it was duck though. We left a great deal of food on the table. In very American fashion, we asked for containers to take the remaining food for thirty back to our hotel. That doesn’t seem to be the norm in China, but we packed up our bags and loaded up with more victuals than a United Nations food convoy. I was concerned about the cost, but for all the entertainment that our endeavors provided for the patrons, perhaps they should have paid us. The price was thankfully low; bless you generous exchange rate. One last problem appeared. The tip. It is insulting to over tip in China. After having the experience of being publicly chastised by a cab driver for over tipping, I was leery. Loaded down as we were, there could be no quick escape should I insult the staff with too many Yuan, or too few. The Six Gods must have been watching out for us though. The older hostess (manager, cook, waitress, cashier†¦ no real idea) took pity on me and selected a bill to leave as a gratuity. It was far less than I would have chosen. I’d have given her double that just for getting me out with my remaining dignity intact. We wound our way back to the hotel, filled with a good meal, good stories, and a good deal of new knowledge about how things are done in China. I mentioned the experience to our guide, who filled in a few of the blank spots. He was happy to hear that we were treated well by the local people. I was happy for the experience. A few days later, we coaxed some other group members to come out with us to the restaurant. We displayed our dining skills for them without ever mentioning the difficulties with which they were acquired. After all, that is how veterans maintain their mystique.